July-December 2016
ISSN 2050-005X (Online); 978-1535124478 (ISBN-13); 1535124474 (ISBN-10)
The issue of whether women should be paid to provide eggs for research or reproduction is complex. An overview of the legal framework of the UK, the US, and some European States reflects this complexity and lack of consensus. Ethical concerns are often raised, but even if money is a driving force, it does not deprive women to freely consent nor does it constitute coercion, exploitation, or commodification. Paying for the services, not for the eggs as goods, justifies the monetary reward (no matter the provider and eggs’ characteristics). Accepting this payment would only enhance women’s autonomy, who are able to decide regarding their own bodies. Moreover, payment for sperm provision is allowed, and so payment for egg provision would establish equality between genders. Furthermore, altruism, an important principle of egg provision, would not necessarily suffer from payment. Currently, there are no strong safeguards, including price and informed consent. Implementation of strong safeguards is essential, and would allow for sufficient supply as well as for more women to experience childbirth and to develop research.
Keywords: human eggs, payment, reproduction and research, autonomy, ethics.
1 The term commonly used for this procedure is ‘egg donation’, which implies that the provision is free and altruistic, a gift, in order to minimize its commercial implications. The issue of paying egg donors is then confusing and ambiguous, so the use of the term ‘egg providers’ is preferable to distinguish with altruistic ‘egg donors’.
2 John Robertson, ‘Compensation and Egg Donation for Research’ (2006) 86 (6) Fertility and Sterility 1573.
3 IVF Zlin, ‘IVF Treatment with Donor Eggs’ (IVF-ZLIN.COM) <www.ivf-zlin.com/24821-ivftreatment-with-donor-eggs> accessed 16 February 2016.
4 Nanette Elster, ‘Egg Donation for Research and Reproduction: the Compensation Conundrum’ in Michele Bratcher Goodwin (ed), Baby Markets: Money and the New Politics of Creating Families (Cambridge University Press 2010).
5 Seamus Burns, ‘For Love or Money?’ (2007) 157 (7273) New Law Journal 697.
6 Robertson.
7 Elster.
8 Robertson.
9 Lisa Ikemoto, ‘Eggs, Nests, and Stem Cells’ in Michele Bratcher Goodwin (ed), Baby Markets: Money and the New Politics of Creating Families (Cambridge University Press 2010).
10 Robertson.
11 Anne Phillips, ‘It’s My Body and I’ll Do What I Like With It: Bodies as Objects and Property’ (2011) 39 (6) Political Theory 724.
12 David Resnik, ‘Regulating the Market for Human Eggs’ (2001) 15 Bioethics 1.
13 Elster.
14 Susan Crockin, ‘A Legal Defense for Compensating Research Egg Donors’ (2010) 6 Cell Stem Cell 99.
15 The Ethics Committee of the American Society for Reproductive Medicine, ‘Financial Compensation of Oocyte Donors’ (2007) 88 (2) Fertility and Sterility 305.
16 Emily Jackson, Medical Law: Text, Cases and Materials (3rd edn, OUP 2013).
17 Michael Fuller, ‘Donor or Vendor: The Commodification of Human Eggs’(2000) 57 (2) Current Surgery 151.
18 Elster.
19 Ibid.
20 Robertson.
21 Catherine Waldby, Ian Kerridge and Margaret Boulos, ‘From Altruism to Monetisation: Australian Women’s Ideas about Money, Ethics and Research Eggs’ (2013) 94 Social Science & Medecine 34.
22 Waldby, et al.
23 Ibid.
24 Ibid.
25 Michelle Oberman, Leslie Wolf and Patti Zettler, ‘Where Stem Cell Research Meets Abortion Politics: Limits on Buying and Selling Human Oocytes’ in Michele Bratcher Goodwin (ed), Baby Markets: Money and the New Politics of Creating Families (Cambridge University Press 2010).
26 Robertson.
27 Ibid.
28 Resnik.
29 Jackson.
30 The 1997 Council of Europe Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine.
31 Directive 2004/23/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 31 March 2004 on setting standards of quality and safety for the donation, procurement, testing, processing, preservation, storage and distribution of human tissues and cells.
32 European Commission, Report on the Regulation of Reproductive Cell Donation in the European Union (European Commission, 2006).
33 Stephen Wilkinson, ‘Is the HFEA’s Policy on Compensating Egg Donors and Egg Sharers Defensible?’ (2013) 21 Medical Law Review 173.
34 Agence de la Biomédecine, ‘Ce que dit la Loi’ (DONDOVOCYTES.FR, January 2016) <www.dondovocytes.fr/comment-faire/ce-que-dit-la-loi/> accessed 16 February 2016.
35 European Commission.
36 Jackson.
37 Wilkinson.
38 Burns.
39 Jackson.
40 Wilkinson.
41 Ibid.
42 Waldby, et al.
43 Elster.
44 Resnik.
45 Ibid.
46 Waldby, et al.
47 The Ethics Committee of the American Society for Reproductive Medicine.
48 Resnik.
49 Andrea Braverman, ‘Exploring Ovum Donors’ Motivations and Needs’ (2001) 1 (4) American Journal Bioethics 16.
50 Waldby, et al.
51 Suelen Fernanda Parames, Luciana Semiao Francisco, Juliana Almada-Colucci, Helio Sato and Joji Ueno, ‘What Influences Oocyte Donation when there is no Financial Compensation?’ (2014) 29 (1) Reprodução & Climatério 8.
52 National Gametes Donation Trust, ‘Egg Donation and the Law’ (NGDT.CO.UK) <www.ngdt.co.uk/egg-donor/donation-the-law/> accessed 16 February 2016.
53 Gift of Life, ‘Frequently Asked Questions’ (GIFTOVLIFE.COM) <www.giftovlife.com/eggdonors/frequently-asked-questions/> accessed 16 February 2016.
54 Jackson.
55 Phillips.
56 Resnik.
57 Fuller.
58 Wilkinson.
59 Phillips.
60 Burns.
61 The Ethics Committee of the American Society for Reproductive Medicine.
62 Waldby, et al.
63 Wilkinson.
64 The Ethics Committee of the American Society for Reproductive Medicine, ‘Financial Incentives in Recruitment of Oocyte Donors’ (2004) 82 Fertility and Sterility 240.
65 Wilkinson.
66 Fuller.
67 Wilkinson.
68 Waldby, et al.
69 Diane Beeson and Abby Lippman, ‘Egg Harvesting for Stem Cell Research: Medical Risks and Ethical Problems’ (2006) 13 Reproductive Biomedicine Online 573.
70 Alana Cattapan, ‘Risky Business: Surrogacy, Egg Donation, and the Politics of Exploitation’ (2014) 29 (3) Canadian Journal of Law and Society 361.
71 Resnik.
72 Wilkinson.
73 Françoise Baylis and Carolyn McLeod, ‘The Stem Cell Debate Continues: the Buying and Selling of Eggs’ (2007) 33 (12) Journal of Medical Ethics 726.
74 Waldby, et al.
75 Burns.
76 Cattapan.
77 Oberman, et al.
78 Cattapan.
79 Burns.
80 Oberman. et al.
81 Ikemoto.
82 Cattapan.
83 Resnik.
84 The Ethics Committee of the American Society for Reproductive Medicine.
85 Elster and Fuller.
86 The Ethics Committee of the American Society for Reproductive Medicine.
87 Oberman, et al.
88 Resnik.
89 Ibid.
90 Phillips.
91 Resnik.
92 Ikemoto.
93 The Ethics Committee of the American Society for Reproductive Medicine.
94 Resnik.
95 Phillips.
96 Ibid.
97 Ibid.
98 Resnik.
99 Phillips.
100 Resnik.
101 Fuller.
102 Oberman et al.
103 Resnik.
143 † LLM, Medical Law & Ethics, University of Kent.
(2016). Should Women Be Paid to Provide Eggs for Research or Reproduction?. Legal issues Journal, 4 (2), https://www.legalissuesjournal.com/article/04-02-09072016/
